美迪奇家族的艺术赞助：成本-利润的视角
——文艺复兴佛罗伦萨艺术研究新视野系列讲座之四研究综述
2012年10月18日下午6点，在中央美术学院美术馆报告厅举行了由中央美术学院人文学院和中央美术学院美术馆联合主办的《文艺复兴佛罗伦萨艺术研究新视野系列讲座》第四场——美迪奇家族的艺术赞助：成本-利润的视角。主讲人是来自哈佛大学意大利文艺复兴研究中心（佛罗伦萨）的学术部副主任乔纳森•奈尔逊（Jonathan Nelson）教授。学术主持是人文学院副院长李军教授。
此次讲座主要是围绕着文艺复兴时期艺术赞助人的身份问题展开的，对这一问题的关注是近30年来西方艺术史研究中的一个潮流。如奈尔逊教授一直所倡导的——积极尝试从新的角度来看待艺术，他也希望能此次讲座用经济学角度来研究艺术赞助人可以为大家带来新的启发。
奈尔逊教授首先兴致勃勃地为大家介绍了他的国家博物馆之旅。他以国家博物馆正在展出的金缕玉衣为例，表明用艺术彰显自身的社会地位是人所共知的一个事实。（因为玉材质的使用显示出了所有者社会地位的高贵。）这一点同样适用于美迪奇家族这一文艺复兴时期的重要艺术赞助人。在奈尔逊教授所展示的洛伦佐·德·美迪奇自己的一段言论中，洛伦佐明确地提出美迪奇家族在艺术上高额的花费是值得的，因为与之相对应的家族声誉的提高使他无比欣慰。同时，这段言论为我们明确提出了在艺术赞助中成本与利润这一问题。
美迪奇家族是佛罗伦萨城首领，享有政治、经济、文化等权力，但这样的家族依旧是普通公民，而不是君主。这种权力和身份的微妙关系使他们一方面想要彰显地位和实力，另一方面，又要小心谨慎不要僭越于君主。奈尔逊教授认为这是一个矛盾，它也成为理解美迪奇家族进行艺术赞助的关键。
接下来，他分别举例描述了艺术赞助人在诸多方面对艺术品的决定性影响，如：材料的提供，作品的尺寸、主题、成本，艺术家的报酬等等。甚至于在欣赏作品这一容易被我们忽略的环节，赞助人也无形地起着作用。因为所有这些委托的订件都是要放置在一个特定的空间里，这就意味艺术作品会被以怎样的角度观看也是已经被赞助人规定好了的。为了使大家更好地理解这一问题，奈尔逊教授一方面列举了美迪奇家族的三代赞助人（科西莫、皮埃罗、洛伦佐）是如何在订件中要求艺术家实现自己的个人意图；另一方面，举出了一个更为有趣的美迪奇家族之外的赞助人的例子：弗朗切斯卡·萨塞蒂（Francesco Sassetti），一个人文主义学者，是美迪奇家族在瑞士的银行员工，因为他经营不善，亏了很多钱，也不得不在订制的艺术品中塑造美迪奇家族成员的光辉形象以讨好他的老板——美迪奇家族。在这里，订制艺术品的经济成本又一次成功地赚取了保留萨塞蒂自身职位的社会利润。
在此基础上，奈尔逊教授更明确地提出利润（benifits）、成本（costs）和限制（constraints）这三个核心概念，并结合已有的文献资料和艺术品实例分别对三者做了具体的讨论。概括来说，利润（benifits）包括：1、艺术品所能带来的家族的荣耀、广泛的社会声誉及大众的爱戴。2、赞助人充分显示权力后的愉悦感和满足感。3、取悦政治盟友的间接获益。4、家族社会地位提高后，政治权力转化而来的经济上的收益。成本（costs）除了指对艺术品投资的经济花销。奈尔逊教授还提出了另外一种不寻常的成本概念：社会成本。即：一个艺术品如果因低廉的经济成本而牺牲品质和完整性，那将产生恶劣的社会效应，不仅不能提高自己的声誉，反而使赞助人本身蒙羞。至于限制（constraints）是指那些不能用钱解决的现实性问题。比如：自然界中某些材质的稀缺、雇佣不到能工巧匠、社会礼法的约束等。
尽管奈尔逊教授认为，作为一个美国学者对中国的听众讲礼法显得有些滑稽，但他还是强调了礼法这一因素在文艺复兴时期的佛罗伦萨的重要性。奈尔逊教授通过瓦萨里的记述向大家展示了美迪奇家族的成员是如何小心翼翼地避免僭越礼法而招致灾祸：科西莫怕招致非议而否决了布鲁内莱斯基过于宏伟的教堂修筑计划；洛伦佐之弟朱力亚诺因遭嫉妒而被谋杀的血的教训；洛伦佐告诫自己那个13岁就成为了红衣主教的儿子乔瓦尼谦逊且不要骄奢的道理。这一切都表明美迪奇家族非常明白艺术品的政治意义，但又不能打破礼法的束缚。
也由此，奈尔逊教授在演讲最后提出了这样一种猜想：由于避免招致嫉妒，美迪奇宫大部分的艺术品并非以美迪奇家族名义订制，而在美迪奇家族的乡村别墅中却存放了大量美迪奇家族成员的订制的艺术品。那么米开朗琪罗受委托所创作的两幅作品（《阶梯旁的圣母》、《半人马之战》）很可能就是为乡村别墅而做的。
在随后的提问环节，奈尔逊教授对美迪奇家族与教会之间的经济与政治权力的互换问题和对经济成本与社会收益之间如何的等量换算问题上都做了精彩解答。
文\中央美术学院 李璠
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According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
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(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
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(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
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(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.
CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer
Article I
This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.
Article II
Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.
Article III
Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.
Article IV
Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.
Article V
During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.
Article VI
Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.
CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement
According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.
CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer
Article I
This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.
Article II
Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.
Article III
Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.
Article IV
Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.
Article V
During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.
Article VI
Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.
CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement
According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
